3. Literature review

3.1. Education

Child welfare workers with social work or Masters level education are thought to provide the most effective child welfare services (Folaron & Hostetter, 2006; Munro, 2011; Zlotnik, 2002). The child welfare literature, however, contains scant evidence of the link between the education of a child welfare worker and practice outcomes (Franke, Bagdasaryan, & Furman, 2009; Auerbach, McGowan, & LaPorte, 2007; Franke et al., 2009). Self-reported feelings of preparedness are typically higher in Master of Social Work (MSW) graduates versus Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) or other university graduates (Bachelor or Master; Lieberman, Hornby, & Russell, 1988; Scannapieco & Batchelor, 2012; Scannapieco & Connell-Corrick, 2003). However, whether perception of readiness translates into more effective practice is not well demonstrated in the literature. For example, Scannapieco and Connell-Corrick(2003) found supervisors tended to rate workers with an MSW higher in preparedness; further analyses revealed, however, that it was only supervisors with an MSW who rated workers with the same education as more prepared.

The literature is inconclusive in the assessement of the relationship between worker education and its impact on decision-making (Barbee et al., 2009; Fallon, 2005), practice responsibilities (Albers, Reilly, & Rittner, 1993; Coulborn, Faller, Grabarek, & Vandervort, 2009; Douglas, McCarthy, & Serino, 2014; Staudt, Perez, Jolles, Chuang, & Wells, 2015) and performance evaluation(Dhooper, Royse, & Wolfe, 1990; Fox, Miller, & Barbee, 2003; Perry, 2006a,b; Rosenthal & Waters, 2006). Specialized child welfare education stream (e.g., Title IV-E) and social work educated workers have been found to intervene more aggressively in the ongoing services provision (Fallon, 2005) and substantiation of decisions (Barbee et al., 2009) versus non-social work and non-child welfare specialized educated workers. Few studies assess the direct relationship between education and child or family outcomes. Studies that do examine this relationship do not show a consistent link between worker education and assessment of permanency planning (Albers et al., 1993), delivery of services (Olsen & Holmes, 1982), use of strengths-based practice (Douglas et al., 2014), service user satisfaction (Staudt et al., 2015), and youth externalizing behaviour (Cheung, Goodman, Leckie, & Jenkins, 2011).

3.2. Training

Ongoing training is generally understood to be crucial in the development of a child welfare worker (Pösö & Forsman, 2013). The training body of literature is descriptive in nature with few studies linking the type, quantity, and quality of training to effective practice (Collins, Amodeo, & Clay, 2007). While training has been found to influence attitude, values, and confidence in skills (Gregoire, 1994; Scourfiend et al., 2012), transfer of learning is key to linking new knowledge to practice. Antle, Barbee, van, and Zyl, 2008 found that a worker’s immediate knowledge acquisition and readiness for learning predicted transfer of knowledge to practice. Less experienced workers have been found to require more peer and supervisory support versus more experienced workers (Curry,McCarragher, Dellmann, & -Jenkins, 2005; Smith, 2005). Supervisors with a positive attitude towards the role of learning and training were found to give significantly more support to newly trained workers than supervisors who had negative attitudes (Antle et al., 2008). Similarly, without organizational support, knowledge gained from training may be lost (Futris, Schramm, Richardson, & Lee, 2015).

Training may play a role in worker retention (Barbee et al., 2009; Mason, LaPorte, Bronstein, & Auerbach, 2012). Antle et al. (2008) found the combination of training and reinforcement of newly acquired skills increased transfer of learning, positively impacting self-efficacy, which was related to remaining in the organization. In contrast, a state-wide study conducted in Kentucky found that workers’ perception of the quality of training did not significantly influence workers’ decision to remain or leave their employing organization (Yankeelov, Barbee, Sullivan, & Antle, 2009). Liu and Smith (2011) found that the ongoing desire to learn and implement new skills in child welfare is related to the perception of supervisory support, co-worker learning culture, and organizational climate. Thus, various organizational factors may play a role in the transfer of knowledge to practice.